Aviation Weather

full text of the classic FAA guide

GLOSSARY OF WEATHER TERMS

A

absolute instability—A state of a layer within the atmosphere in which the vertical distribution of temperature is such that an air parcel, if given an upward or downward push, will move away from its initial level without further outside force being applied.

absolute temperature scale—See Kelvin Temperature Scale.

absolute vorticity—See vorticity.

adiabatic process—The process by which fixed relationships are maintained during changes in temperature, volume, and pressure in a body of air without heat being added or removed from the body.

advection—The horizontal transport of air or atmospheric properties. In meteorology, sometimes referred to as the horizontal component of convection.

advection fog—Fog resulting from the transport of warm, humid air over a cold surface.

air density—The mass density of the air in terms of weight per unit volume.

air mass—In meteorology, an extensive body of air within which the conditions of temperature and moisture in a horizontal plane are essentially uniform.

air mass classification—A system used to identify and to characterize the different air masses according to a basic scheme. The system most commonly used classifies air masses primarily according to the thermal properties of their source regions: “tropical” (T); “polar” (P); and “Arctic” or “Antarctic” (A). They are further classified according to moisture characteristics as “continental” (c) or “maritime” (m).

air parcel—See parcel.

albedo—The ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to the amount incident upon it, commonly expressed in percentage; in meteorology, usually used in reference to insolation (solar radiation); i.e., the albedo of wet sand is 9, meaning that about 9% of the incident insolation is reflected; albedoes of other surfaces range upward to 80-85 for fresh snow cover; average albedo for the earth and its atmosphere has been calculated to range from 35 to 43.

altimeter—An instrument which determines the altitude of an object with respect to a fixed level. See pressure altimeter.

altimeter setting—The value to which the scale of a pressure altimeter is set so as to read true altitude at field elevation.

altimeter setting indicator—A precision aneroid barometer calibrated to indicate directly the altimeter setting.

altitude—Height expressed in units of distance above a reference plane, usually above mean sea level or above ground.

corrected altitude—Indicated altitude of an aircraft altimeter corrected for the temperature of the column of air below the aircraft, the correction being based on the estimated departure of existing temperature from standard atmospheric temperature; an approximation of true altitude.
density altitude—The altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the air has the same density as the air at the point in question. An aircraft will have the same performance characteristics as it would have in a standard atmosphere at this altitude.
indicated altitude—The altitude above mean sea level indicated on a pressure altimeter set at current local altimeter setting.
pressure altitude—The altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the pressure is the same as at the point in question. Since an altimeter operates solely on pressure, this is the uncorrected altitude indicated by an altimeter set at standard sea level pressure of 29.92 inches or 1013 millibars.
radar altitude—The altitude of an aircraft determined by radar-type radio altimeter; thus the actual distance from the nearest terrain or water feature encompassed by the downward directed radar beam. For all practical purposes, it is the “actual“ distance above a ground or inland water surface or the true altitude above an ocean surface.
true altitude—The exact distance above mean sea level.

altocumulus—White or gray layers or patches of cloud, often with a waved appearance; cloud elements appear as rounded masses or rolls; composed mostly of liquid water droplets which may be supercooled; may contain ice crystals at subfreezing temperatures.

altocumulus castellanus—A species of middle cloud of which at least a fraction of its upper part presents some vertically developed, cumuliform protuberances (some of which are taller than they are wide, as castles) and which give the cloud a crenelated or turreted appearance; especially evident when seen from the side; elements usually have a common base arranged in lines. This cloud indicates instability and turbulence at the altitudes of occurrence.

anemometer—An instrument for measuring wind speed.

aneroid barometer—A barometer which operates on the principle of having changing atmospheric pressure bend a metallic surface which, in turn, moves a pointer across a scale graduated in units of pressure.

angel—In radar meteorology, an echo caused by physical phenomena not discernible to the eye; they have been observed when abnormally strong temperature and/or moisture gradients were known to exist; sometimes attributed to insects or birds flying in the radar beam.

anomalous propagation (sometimes called AP)—In radar meteorology, the greater than normal bending of the radar beam such that echoes are received from ground targets at distances greater than normal ground clutter.

anticyclone—An area of high atmospheric pressure which has a closed circulation that is anticyclonic, i.e., as viewed from above, the circulation is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, undefined at the Equator.

anvil cloud—Popular name given to the top portion of a cumulonimbus cloud having an anvil-like form.

APOB—A sounding made by an aircraft.

Arctic air—An air mass with characteristics developed mostly in winter over Arctic surfaces of ice and snow. Arctic air extends to great heights, and the surface temperatures are basically, but not always, lower than those of polar air.

Arctic front—The surface of discontinuity between very cold (Arctic) air flowing directly from the Arctic region and another less cold and, consequently, less dense air mass.

astronomical twilight—See twilight.

atmosphere—The mass of air surrounding the Earth.

atmospheric pressure (also called barometric pressure)—The pressure exerted by the atmosphere as a consequence of gravitational attraction exerted upon the “column” of air lying directly above the point in question.

atmospherics—Disturbing effects produced in radio receiving apparatus by atmospheric electrical phenomena such as an electrical storm. Static.

aurora—A luminous, radiant emission over middle and high latitudes confined to the thin air of high altitudes and centered over the earth's magnetic poles. Called “aurora borealis” (northern lights) or “aurora australis” according to its occurrence in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere, respectively.

attenuation—In radar meteorology, any process which reduces power density in radar signals.

precipitation attenuation—Reduction of power density because of absorption or reflection of energy by precipitation.
range attenuation—Reduction of radar power density because of distance from the antenna. It occurs in the outgoing beam at a rate proportional to 1/range². The return signal is also attenuated at the same rate.

B

backing—Shifting of the wind in a counterclockwise direction with respect to either space or time; opposite of veering. Commonly used by meteorologists to refer to a cyclonic shift (counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere).

backscatter—Pertaining to radar, the energy reflected or scattered by a target; an echo.

banner cloud (also called cloud banner)—A banner-like cloud streaming off from a mountain peak.

barograph—A continuous-recording barometer.

barometer—An instrument for measuring the pressure of the atmosphere; the two principle types are mercurial and aneroid.

barometric altimeter—See pressure altimeter.

barometric pressure—Same as atmospheric pressure.

barometric tendency—The change of barometric pressure within a specified period of time. In aviation weather observations, routinely determined periodically, usually for a 3-hour period.

beam resolution—See resolution.

Beaufort scale—A scale of wind speeds.

black blizzard—Same as duststorm.

blizzard—A severe weather condition characterized by low temperatures and strong winds bearing a great amount of snow, either falling or picked up from the ground.

blowing dust—A type of lithometeor composed of dust particles picked up locally from the surface and blown about in clouds or sheets.

blowing sand—A type of lithometeor composed of sand picked up locally from the surface and blown about in clouds or sheets.

blowing snow—A type of hydrometeor composed of snow picked up from the surface by the wind and carried to a height of 6 feet or more.

blowing spray—A type of hydrometeor composed of water particles picked up by the wind from the surface of a large body of water.

bright band—In radar meteorology, a narrow, intense echo on the range-height indicator scope resulting from water-covered ice particles of high reflectivity at the melting level.

Buys Ballot's law—If an observer in the Northern Hemisphere stands with his back to the wind, lower pressure is to his left.

C

calm—The absence of wind or of apparent motion of the air.

cap cloud (also called cloud cap)—A standing or stationary cap-like cloud crowning a mountain summit.

ceiling—In meteorology in the U.S., (1) the height above the surface of the base of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena aloft that hides more than half of the sky, or (2) the vertical visibility into an obscuration. See summation principle.

ceiling balloon—A small balloon used to determine the height of a cloud base or the extent of vertical visibility.

ceiling light—An instrument which projects a vertical light beam onto the base of a cloud or into surface-based obscuring phenomena; used at night in conjunction with a clinometer to determine the height of the cloud base or as an aid in estimating the vertical visibility.

ceilometer—A cloud-height measuring system. It projects light on the cloud, detects the reflection by a photoelectric cell, and determines height by triangulation.

Celsius temperature scale (abbreviated C)—A temperature scale with zero degrees as the melting point of pure ice and 100 degrees as the boiling point of pure water at standard sea level atmospheric pressure.

Centigrade temperature scale—Same as Celsius temperature scale.

chaff—Pertaining to radar, (1) short, fine strips of metallic foil dropped from aircraft, usually by military forces, specifically for the purpose of jamming radar; (2) applied loosely to echoes resulting from chaff.

change of state—In meteorology, the transformation of water from one form, i.e., solid (ice), liquid, or gaseous (water vapor), to any other form. There are six possible transformations designated by the five terms following:

condensation—The change of water vapor to liquid water.
evaporation—The change of liquid water to water vapor.
freezing—The change of liquid water to ice.
melting—The change of ice to liquid water.
sublimation—The change of (a) ice to water vapor or (b) water vapor to ice. See latent heat.

Chinook—A warm, dry joehn wind blowing down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains over the adjacent plains in the U.S. and Canada.

cirriform—All species and varieties of cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrosiratus clouds; descriptive of clouds composed mostly or entirely of small ice crystals, usually transparent and white; often producing halo phenomena not observed with other cloud forms. Average height ranges upward from 20,000 feet in middle latitudes.

cirrocumulus—A cirriform cloud appearing as a thin sheet of small white puffs resembling flakes or patches of cotton without shadows; sometimes confused with altocumulus.

cirrostratus—A cirriform cloud appearing as a whitish veil, usually fibrous, sometimes smooth; often produces halo phenomena; may totally cover the sky.

cirrus—A cirriform cloud in the form of thin, white feather-like clouds in patches or narrow bands; have a fibrous and/or silky sheen; large ice crystals often trail downward a considerable vertical distance in fibrous, slanted, or irregularly curved wisps called mares' tails.

civil twilight—See twilight.

clear air turbulence (abbreviated CAT)—Turbulence encountered in air where no clouds are present; more popularly applied to high level turbulence associated with wind shear.

clear icing (or clear ice)—Generally, the formation of a layer or mass of ice which is relatively transparent because of its homogeneous structure and small number and size of air spaces; used commonly as synonymous with glaze, particularly with respect to aircraft icing. Compare with rime icing. Factors which favor clear icing are large drop size, such as those found in cumuliform clouds, rapid accretion of supercooled water, and slow dissipation of latent heat of fusion.

climate—The statistical collective of the weather conditions of a point or area during a specified interval of time (usually several decades); may be expressed in a variety of ways.

climatology—The study of climate.

clinometer—An instrument used in weather observing for measuring angles of inclination; it is used in conjunction with a ceiling light to determine cloud height at night.

cloud bank—Generally, a fairly well-defined mass of cloud observed at a distance; it covers an appreciable portion of the horizon sky, but does not extend overhead.

cloudburst—In popular teminology, any sudden and heavy fall of rain, almost always of the shower type.

cloud cap—See cap cloud.

cloud detection radar—A vertically directed radar to detect cloud bases and tops.

cold front—Any non-occluded front which moves in such a way that colder air replaces warmer air.

condensation—See change of state.

condensation level—The height at which a rising parcel or layer of air would become saturated if lifted adiabatically.

condensation nuclei—Small particles in the air on which water vapor condenses or sublimates.

condensation trail (or contrail) (also called vapor trail)—A cloud-like streamer frequently observed to form behind aircraft flying in clear, cold, humid air.

conditionally unstable air—Unsaturated air that will become unstable on the condition it becomes saturated. See instability.

conduction—The transfer of heat by molecular action through a substance or from one substance in contact with another; transfer is always from warmer to colder temperature.

constant pressure chart—A chart of a constant pressure surface; may contain analyses of height, wind, temperature, humidity, and/or other elements.

continental polar air—See polar air.

continental tropical air—See tropical air.

contour—In meteorology, (1) a line of equal height on a constant pressure chart; analogous to contours on a relief map; (2) in radar meteorology, a line on a radar scope of equal echo intensity.

contouring circuit—On weather radar, a circuit which displays multiple contours of echo intensity simultaneously on the plan position indicator or range-height indicator scope. See contour (2).

contrail—Contraction for condensation trail.

convection—(1) In general, mass motions within a fluid resulting in transport and mixing of the properties of that fluid. (2) In meteorology, atmospheric motions that are predominantly vertical, resulting in vertical transport and mixing of atmospheric properties; distinguished from advection.

convective cloud—See cumuliform.

convective condensation level (abbreviated CCL)—The lowest level at which condensation will occur as a result of convection due to surface heating. When condensation occurs at this level, the layer between the surface and the CCL will be thoroughly mixed, temperature lapse rate will be dry adiabatic, and mixing ratio will be constant.

convective instability—The state of an unsaturated layer of air whose lapse rates of temperature and moisture are such that when lifted adiabatically until the layer becomes saturated, convection is spontaneous.

convergence—The condition that exists when the distribution of winds within a given area is such that there is a net horizontal inflow of air into the area. In convergence at lower levels, the removal of the resulting excess is accomplished by an upward movement of air; consequently, areas of low-level convergent winds are regions favorable to the occurrence of clouds and precipitation. Compare with divergence.

Coriolis force—A deflective force resulting from earth's rotation; it acts to the right of wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

corona—A prismatically colored circle or arcs of a circle with the sun or moon at its center; coloration is from blue inside to red outside (opposite that of a halo); varies in size (much smaller) as opposed to the fixed diameter of the halo; characteristic of clouds composed of water droplets and valuable in differentiating between middle and cirriform clouds.

corposant—See St. Elmo's Fire.

corrected altitude (approximation of true altitude)—See altitude.

cumuliform—A term descriptive of all convective clouds exhibiting vertical development in contrast to the horizontally extended stratiform types.

cumulonimbus—A cumuliform cloud type; it is heavy and dense, with considerable vertical extent in the form of massive towers; often with tops in the shape of an anvil or massive plume; under the base of cumulonimbus, which often is very dark, there frequently exists virga, precipitation and low ragged clouds (scud), either merged with it or not; frequently accompanied by lightning, thunder, and sometimes hail; occasionally produces a tornado or a waterspout; the ultimate manifestation of the growth of a cumulus cloud, occasionally extending well into the stratosphere.

cumulonimbus mamma—A cumulonimbus cloud having hanging protuberances, like pouches, festoons, or udders, on the under side of the cloud; usually indicative of severe turbulence.

cumulus—A cloud in the form of individual detached domes or towers which are usually dense and well defined; develops vertically in the form of rising mounds of which the bulging upper part often resembles a cauli-flower; the sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white; their bases are relatively dark and nearly horizontal.

cumulus fractus—See fractus.

cyclogenesis—Any development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere.

cyclone—(1) An area of low atmospheric pressure which has a closed circulation that is cyclonic, i.e., as viewed from above, the circulation is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, undefined at the Equator. Because cyclonic circulation and relatively low atmospheric pressure usually co-exist, in common practice the terms cyclone and low are used interchangeably. Also, because cyclones often are accompanied by inclement (sometimes destructive) weather, they are frequently referred to simply as storms. (2) Frequently misused to denote a tornado. (3) In the Indian Ocean, a tropical cyclone of hurricane or typhoon force.

D

deepening—A decrease in the central pressure of a pressure system; usually applied to a low rather than to a high, although technically, it is acceptable in either sense.

density—(1) The ratio of the mass of any substance to the volume it occupies—weight per unit volume. (2) The ratio of any quantity to the volume or area it occupies, i.e., population per unit area, power density.

density altitude—See altitude.

depression—In meteorology, an area of low pressure; a low or trough. This is usually applied to a certain stage in the development of a tropical cyclone, to migratory lows and troughs, and to upper-level lows and troughs that are only weakly developed.

dew—Water condensed onto grass and other objects near the ground, the temperatures of which have fallen below the initial dew point temperature of the surface air, but is still above freezing. Compare with frost.

dew point (or dew-point temperature)—The temperature to which a sample of air must be cooled, while the mixing ratio and barometric pressure remain constant, in order to attain saturation with respect to water.

discontinuity—A zone with comparatively rapid transition of one or more meteorological elements.

disturbance—In meteorology, applied rather loosely: (1) any low pressure or cyclone, but usually one that is relatively small in size; (2) an area where weather, wind, pressure, etc., show signs of cyclonic development; (3) any deviation in flow or pressure that is associated with a disturbed state of the weather, i.e., cloudiness and precipitation; and (4) any individual circulatory system within the primary circulation of the atmosphere.

diurnal—Daily, especially pertaining to a cycle completed within a 24-hour period, and which recurs every 24 hours.

divergence—The condition that exists when the distribution of winds within a given area is such that there is a net horizontal flow of air outward from the region. In divergence at lower levels, the resulting deficit is compensated for by subsidence of air from aloft; consequently the air is heated and the relative humidity lowered making divergence a warming and drying process. Low-level divergent regions are areas unfavorable to the occurrence of clouds and precipitation. The opposite of convergence.

doldrums—The equatorial belt of calm or light and variable winds between the two tradewind belts. Compare intertropical convergence zone.

downdraft—A relative small scale downward current of air; often observed on the lee side of large objects restricting the smooth flow of the air or in precipitation areas in or near cumuliform clouds.

drifting snow—A type of hydrometeor composed of snow particles picked up from the surface, but carried to a height of less than 6 feet.

drizzle—A form of precipitation. Very small water drops that appear to float with the air currents while falling in an irregular path (unlike rain, which falls in a comparatively straight path, and unlike fog droplets which remain suspended in the air).

dropsonde—A radiosonde dropped by parachute from an aircraft to obtain soundings (measurements) of the atmosphere below.

dry adiabatic lapse rate—The rate of decrease of temperature with height when unsaturated air is lifted adiabatically (due to expansion as it is lifted to lower pressure). See adiabatic process.

dry bulb—A name given to an ordinary thermometer used to determine temperature of the air; also used as a contraction for dry-bulb temperature. Compare wet bulb.

dry-bulb temperature—The temperature of the air.

dust—A type of lithometeor composed of small earthen particles suspended in the atmosphere.

dust devil—A small, vigorous whirlwind, usually of short duration, rendered visible by dust, sand, and debris picked up from the ground.

duster—Same as duststorm.

duststorm (also called duster, black blizzard)—An unusual, frequently severe weather condition characterized by strong winds and dust-filled air over an extensive area.

D-value—Departure of true altitude from pressure altitude (see altitude); obtained by algebraically subtracting true altitude from pressure altitude; thus it may be plus or minus. On a constant pressure chart, the difference between actual height and standard atmospheric height of a constant pressure surface.

E

echo—In radar, (1) the energy reflected or scattered by a target; (2) the radar scope presentation of the return from a target.

eddy—A local irregularity of wind in a larger scale wind flow. Small scale eddies produce turbulent conditions.

estimated ceiling—A ceiling classification applied when the ceiling height has been estimated by the observer or has been determined by some other method; but, because of the specified limits of time, distance, or precipitation conditions, a more descriptive classification cannot be applied.

evaporation—See change of state.

extratropical low (sometimes called extratropical cyclone, extratropical storm)—Any cyclone that is not a tropical cyclone, usually referring to the migratory frontal cyclones of middle and high latitudes.

eye—The roughly circular area of calm or relatively light winds and comparatively fair weather at the center of a well-developed tropical cyclone. A wall cloud marks the outer boundary of the eye.

F

Fahrenheit temperature scale (abbreviated F)—A temperature scale with 32 degrees as the melting point of pure ice and 212 degrees as the boiling point of pure water at standard sea level atmospheric pressure (29.92 inches or 1013.2 millibars).

Fall wind—A cold wind blowing downslope. Fall wind differs from foehn in that the air is initially cold enough to remain relatively cold despite compressional heating during descent.

filling—An increase in the central pressure of a pressure system; opposite of deepening; more commonly applied to a low rather than a high.

first gust—The leading edge of the spreading downdraft, plow wind, from an approaching thunderstorm.

flow line—A streamline.

foehn—A warm, dry downslope wind; the warmness and dryness being due to adiabatic compression upon descent; characteristic of mountainous regions. See adiabatic process, Chinook, Santa Ana.

fog—A hydrometeor consisting of numerous minute water droplets and based at the surface; droplets are small enough to be suspended in the earth's atmosphere indefinitely. (Unlike drizzle, it does not fall to the surface; differs from cloud only in that a cloud is not based at the surface; distinguished from haze by its wetness and gray color.)

fractus—Clouds in the form of irregular shreds, appearing as if torn; have a clearly ragged appearance; applies only to stratus and cumulus, i.e., cumulus fractus and stratus fractus.

freezing—See change of state.

freezing level—A level in the atmosphere at which the temperature is 0° C (32° F).

front—A surface, interface, or transition zone of discontinuity between two adjacent air masses of different densities; more simply the boundary between two different air masses. See frontal zone.

frontal zone—A front or zone with a marked increase of density gradient; used to denote that fronts are not truly a “surface” of discontinuity but rather a “zone” of rapid transition of meteorological elements.

frontogenesis—The initial formation of a front or frontal zone.

frontolysis—The dissipation of a front.

frost (also hoarfrost)—Ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation when temperature and dew point are below freezing.

funnel cloud—A tornado cloud or vortex cloud extending downward from the parent cloud but not reaching the ground.

G

glaze—A coating of ice, generally clear and smooth, formed by freezing of supercooled water on a surface. See clear icing.

gradient—In meteorology, a horizontal decrease in value per unit distance of a parameter in the direction of maximum decrease; most commonly used with pressure, temperature, and moisture.

ground clutter—Pertaining to radar, a cluster of echoes, generally at short range, reflected from ground targets.

ground fog—In the United States, a fog that conceals less than 0.6 of the sky and is not contiguous with the base of clouds.

gust—A sudden brief increase in wind; according to U.S. weather observing practice, gusts are reported when the variation in wind speed between peaks and lulls is at least 10 knots.

H

hail—A form of precipitation composed of balls or irregular lumps of ice, always produced by convective clouds which are nearly always cumulonimbus.

halo—A prismatically colored or whitish circle or arcs of a circle with the sun or moon at its center; coloration, if not white, is from red inside to blue outside (opposite that of a corona); fixed in size with an angular diameter of 22° (common) or 46° (rare); characteristic of clouds composed of ice crystals; valuable in differentiating between cirriform and forms of lower clouds.

haze—A type of lithometeor composed of fine dust or salt particles dispersed through a portion of the atmosphere; particles are so small they cannot be felt or individually seen with the naked eye (as compared with the larger particles of dust), but diminish the visibility; distinguished from fog by its bluish or yellowish tinge.

high—An area of high barometric pressure, with its attendant system of winds; an anticyclone. Also high pressure system.

hoar frost—See frost.

humidity—Water vapor content of the air; may be expressed as specific humidity, relative humidity, or mixing ratio.

hurricane—A tropical cyclone in the Western Hemisphere with winds in excess of 65 knots or 120 km/h.

hydrometeor—A general term for particles of liquid water or ice such as rain, fog, frost, etc., formed by modification of water vapor in the atmosphere; also water or ice particles lifted from the earth by the wind such as sea spray or blowing snow.

hygrograph—The record produced by a continuous-recording hygrometer.

hygrometer—An instrument for measuring the water vapor content of the air.

I

ice crystals—A type of precipitation composed of unbranched crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates; usually having a very slight downward motion, may fall from a cloudless sky.

ice fog—A type of fog composed of minute suspended particles of ice; occurs at very low temperatures and may cause halo phenomena.

ice needles—A form of ice crystals.

ice pellets—Small, transparent or translucent, round or irregularly shaped pellets of ice. They may be (1) hard grains that rebound on striking a hard surface or (2) pellets of snow encased in ice.

icing—In general, any deposit of ice forming on an object. See clear icing, rime icing, glaze.

indefinite ceiling—A ceiling classification denoting vertical visibility into a surface based obscuration.

indicated altitude—See altitude.

insolation—Incoming solar radiation falling upon the earth and its atmosphere.

instability—A general term to indicate various states of the atmosphere in which spontaneous convection will occur when prescribed criteria are met; indicative of turbulence. See absolute instability, conditionally unstable air, convective instability.

intertropical convergence zone—The boundary zone between the trade wind system of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; it is characterized in maritime climates by showery precipitation with cumulonimbus clouds sometimes extending to great heights.

inversion—An increase in temperature with height—a reversal of the normal decrease with height in the troposphere; may also be applied to other meteorological properties.

isobar—A line of equal or constant barometric pressure.

iso echo—In radar circuitry, a circuit that reverses signal strength above a specified intensity level, thus causing a void on the scope in the most intense portion of an echo when maximum intensity is greater than the specified level.

isoheight—On a weather chart, a line of equal height; same as contour (1).

isoline—A line of equal value of a variable quantity, i.e., an isoline of temperature is an isotherm, etc. See isobar, isotach, etc.

isoshear—A line of equal wind shear.

isotach—A line of equal or constant wind speed.

isotherm—A line of equal or constant temperature.

isothermal—Of equal or constant temperature, with respect to either space or time; more commonly, temperature with height; a zero lapse rate.

J

jet stream—A quasi-horizontal stream of winds 50 knots or more concentrated within a narrow band embedded in the westerlies in the high troposphere.

K

katabatic wind—Any wind blowing downslope. See fall wind, foehn.

Kelvin temperature scale (abbreviated K)—A temperature scale with zero degrees equal to the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases, i.e., absolute zero (0°K = −273° C); the Kelvin degree is identical to the Celsius degree; hence at standard sea level pressure, the melting point is 273° K and the boiling point 373° K.

knot—A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour.

L

land breeze—A coastal breeze blowing from land to sea, caused by temperature difference when the sea surface is warmer than the adjacent land. Therefore, it usually blows at night and alternates with a sea breeze, which blows in the opposite direction by day.

lapse rate—The rate of decrease of an atmospheric variable with height; commonly refers to decrease of temperature with height.

latent heat—The amount of heat absorbed (converted to kinetic energy) during the processes of change of liquid water to water vapor, ice to water vapor, or ice to liquid water; or the amount released during the reverse processes. Four basic classifications are:

latent heat of condensation—Heat released during change of water vapor to water.
latent heat of fusion—Heat released during change of water to ice or the amount absorbed in change of ice to water.
latent heat of sublimation—Heat released during change of water vapor to ice or the amount absorbed in the change of ice to water vapor.
latent heat of vaporization—Heat absorbed in the change of water to water vapor; the negative of latent heat of condensation.

layer—In reference to sky cover, clouds or other obscuring phenomena whose bases are approximately at the same level. The layer may be continuous or composed of detached elements. The term “layer” does not imply that a clear space exists between the layers or that the clouds or obscuring phenomena composing them are of the same type.

lee wave—Any stationary wave disturbance caused by a barrier in a fluid flow. In the atmosphere when sufficient moisture is present, this wave will be evidenced by lenticular clouds to the lee of mountain barriers; also called mountain wave or standing wave.

lenticular cloud (or lenticularis)—A species of cloud whose elements have the form of more or less isolated, generally smooth lenses or almonds. These clouds appear most often in formations of orographic origin, the result of lee waves, in which case they remain nearly stationary with respect to the terrain (standing cloud), but they also occur in regions without marked orography.

level of free convection (abbreviated LFC)—The level at which a parcel of air lifted dry-adiabatically until saturated and moist-adiabatically thereafter would become warmer than its surroundings in a conditionally unstable atmosphere. See conditional instability and adiabatic process.

lifting condensation level (abbreviated LCL)—The level at which a parcel of unsaturated air lifted dry-adiabatically would become saturated. Compare level of free convection and convective condensation level.

lightning—Generally, any and all forms of visible electrical discharge produced by a thunderstorm.

lithometeor—The general term for dry particles suspended in the atmosphere such as dust, haze, smoke, and sand.

low—An area of low barometric pressure, with its attendant system of winds. Also called a barometric depression or cyclone.

M

mammato cumulus—Obsolete. See cumulonimbus mamma.

mare's tail—See cirrus.

maritime polar air (abbreviated mP)—See polar air.

maritime tropical air (abbreviated mT)—See tropical air.

maximum wind axis—On a constant pressure chart, a line denoting the axis of maximum wind speeds at that constant pressure surface.

mean sea level—The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of tide; used as reference for elevations throughout the U.S.

measured ceiling—A ceiling classification applied when the ceiling value has been determined by instruments or the known heights of unobscured portions of objects, other than natural landmarks.

melting—See change of state.

mercurial barometer—A barometer in which pressure is determined by balancing air pressure against the weight of a column of mercury in an evacuated glass tube.

meteorological visibility—In U.S. observing practice, a main category of visibility which includes the subcategories of prevailing visibility and runway visibility. Meteorological visibility is a measure of horizontal visibility near the earth's surface, based on sighting of objects in the daytime or unfocused lights of moderate intensity at night. Compare slant visibility, runway visual range, vertical visibility. See surface visibility, tower visibility, and sector visibility.

meteorology—The science of the atmosphere.

microbarograph—An aneroid barograph designed to record atmospheric pressure changes of very small magnitudes.

millibar (abbreviated mb.)—An internationally used unit of pressure equal to 1,000 dynes per square centimeter. It is convenient for reporting atmospheric pressure.

mist—A popular expression for drizzle or heavy fog.

mixing ratio—The ratio by weight of the amount of water vapor in a volume of air to the amount of dry air; usually expressed as grams per kilogram (g/kg).

moist-adiabatic lapse rate—See saturated-adiabatic lapse rate.

moisture—An all-inclusive term denoting water in any or all of its three states.

monsoon—A wind that in summer blows from sea to a continental interior, bringing copious rain, and in winter blows from the interior to the sea, resulting in sustained dry weather.

mountain wave—A standing wave or lee wave to the lee of a mountain barrier.

N

nautical twilight—See twilight.

negative vorticity—See vorticity.

nimbostratus—A principal cloud type, gray colored, often dark, the appearance of which is rendered diffuse by more or less continuously falling rain or snow, which in most cases reaches the ground. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the sun.

noctilucent clouds—Clouds of unknown composition which occur at great heights, probably around 75 to 90 kilometers. They resemble thin cirrus, but usually with a bluish or silverish color, although sometimes orange to red, standing out against a dark night sky. Rarely observed.

normal—In meteorology, the value of an element averaged for a given location over a period of years and recognized as a standard.

numerical forecasting—See numerical weather prediction.

numerical weather prediction—Forecasting by digital computers solving mathematical equations; used extensively in weather services throughout the world.

O

obscuration—Denotes sky hidden by surface-based obscuring phenomena and vertical visibility restricted overhead.

obscuring phenomena—Any hydrometeor or lithometeor other than clouds; may be surface based or aloft.

occlusion—Same as occluded front.

occluded front (commonly called occlusion, also called frontal occlusion)—A composite of two fronts as a cold front overtakes a warm front or quasi-stationary front.

orographic—Of, pertaining to, or caused by mountains as in orographic clouds, orographic lift, or orographic precipitation.

ozone—An unstable form of oxygen; heaviest concentrations are in the stratosphere; corrosive to some metals; absorbs most ultraviolet solar radiation.

P

parcel—A small volume of air, small enough to contain uniform distribution of its meteorological properties, and large enough to remain relatively self-contained and respond to all meteorological processes. No specific dimensions have been defined, however, the order of magnitude of 1 cubic foot has been suggested.

partial obscuration—A designation of sky cover when part of the sky is hidden by surface based obscuring phenomena.

pilot balloon—A small free-lift balloon used to determine the speed and direction of winds in the upper air.

pilot balloon observation (commonly called PIBAL)—A method of winds-aloft observation by visually tracking a pilot balloon.

plan position indicator (PPI) scope—A radar indicator scope displaying range and azimuth of targets in polar coordinates.

plow wind—The spreading downdraft of a thunderstorm; a strong, straight-line wind in advance of the storm. See first gust.

polar air—An air mass with characteristics developed over high latitudes, especially within the subpolar highs. Continental polar air (cP) has cold surface temperatures, low moisture content, and, especially in its source regions, has great stability in the lower layers. It is shallow in comparison with Arctic air. Maritime polar (mP) initially possesses similar properties to those of continental polar air, but in passing over warmer water it becomes unstable with a higher moisture content. Compare tropical air.

polar front—The semipermanent, semicontinuous front separating air masses of tropical and polar origins.

positive vorticity—See vorticity.

power density—In radar meteorology the amount of radiated energy per unit cross sectional area in the radar beam.

precipitation—Any or all forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the atmosphere and reach the surface. It is a major class of hydrometeor, distinguished from cloud and virga in that it must reach the surface.

precipitation attenuation—See attenuation.

pressure—See atmospheric pressure.

pressure altimeter—An aneroid barometer with a scale graduated in altitude instead of pressure using standard atmospheric pressure-height relationships; shows indicated altitude (not necessarily true altitude); may be set to measure altitude (indicated) from any arbitrarily chosen level. See altimeter setting, altitude.

pressure altitude—See altitude.

pressure gradient—The rate of decrease of pressure per unit distance at a fixed time.

pressure jump—A sudden, significant increase in station pressure.

pressure tendency—See barometric tendency.

prevailing easterlies—The broad current or pattern of persistent easterly winds in the Tropics and in polar regions.

prevailing visibility—In the U.S., the greatest horizontal visibility which is equaled or exceeded throughout half of the horizon circle; it need not be a continuous half.

prevailing westerlies—The dominant west-to-east motion of the atmosphere, centered over middle latitudes of both hemispheres.

prevailing wind—Direction from which the wind blows most frequently.

prognostic chart (contracted PROG)—A chart of expected or forecast conditions.

pseudo-adiabattc lapse rate—See saturated-adiabatic lapse rate.

psychrometer—An instrument consisting of a wet-bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer for measuring wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperature; used to determine water vapor content of the air.

pulse—Pertaining to radar, a brief burst of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the radar; of very short time duration. See pulse length.

pulse length—Pertaining to radar, the dimension of a radar pulse; may be expressed as the time duration or the length in linear units. Linear dimension is equal to time duration multiplied by the speed of propagation (approximately the speed of light).

Q

quasi-stationary front (commonly called stationary front)—A front which is stationary or nearly so; conventionally, a front which is moving at a speed of less than 5 knots is generally considered to be quasi-stationary.

R

RADAR (contraction for radio detection and ranging)—An electronic instrument used for the detection and ranging of distant objects of such composition that they scatter or reflect radio energy. Since hydrometeors can scatter radio energy, weather radars, operating on certain frequency bands, can detect the presence of precipitation, clouds, or both.

radar altitude—See altitude.

radar beam—The focused energy radiated by radar similar to a flashlight or searchlight beam.

radar echo—See echo.

radarsonde observation—A rawinsonde observation in which winds are determined by radar tracking a balloon-borne target.

radiation—The emission of energy by a medium and transferred, either through free space or another medium, in the form of electromagnetic waves.

radiation fog—Fog characteristically resulting when radiational cooling of the earth's surface lowers the air temperature near the ground to or below its initial dew point on calm, clear nights.

radiosonde—A balloon-borne instrument for measuring pressure, temperature, and humidity aloft. Radiosonde observation—a sounding made by the instrument.

rain—A form of precipitation; drops are larger than drizzle and fall in relatively straight, although not necessarily vertical, paths as compared to drizzle which falls in irregular paths.

rain shower—See shower.

range attenuation—See attenuation.

range-height indicator (RUT) scope—A radar indicator scope displaying a vertical cross section of targets along a selected azimuth.

range resolution—See resolution.

RAOB—A radiosonde observation.

rawin—A rawinsonde observation.

rawinsonde observation—A combined winds aloft and radiosonde observation. Winds are determined by tracking the radiosonde by radio direction finder or radar.

refraction—In radar, bending of the radar beam by variations in atmospheric density, water vapor content, and temperature.

normal refraction—Refraction of the radar beam under normal atmospheric conditions; normal radius of curvature of the beam is about 4 times the radius of curvature of the Earth.
superrefraction—More than normal bending of the radar beam resulting from abnormal vertical gradients of temperature and/or water vapor.
subrefraction—Less than normal bending of the radar beam resulting from abnormal vertical gradients of temperature and/or water vapor.

relative humidity—The ratio of the existing amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature to the maximum amount that could exist at that temperature; usually expressed in percent.

relative vorticity—See vorticity.

remote scope—In radar meteorology a “slave” scope remoted from weather radar.

resolution—Pertaining to radar, the ability of radar to show discrete targets separately, i.e., the better the resolution, the closer two targets can be to each other, and still be detected as separate targets.

beam resolution—The ability of radar to distinguish between targets at approximately the same range but at different azimuths.
range resolution—The ability of radar to distinguish between targets on the same azimuth but at different ranges.

ridge (also called ridge line)—In meteorology, an elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure; usually associated with and most clearly identified as an area of maximum anticyclonic curvature of the wind flow (isobars, contours, or streamlines).

rime icing (or rime ice)—The formation of a white or milky and opaque granular deposit of ice formed by the rapid freezing of supercooled water droplets as they im-pinge upon an exposed aircraft.

rocketsonde—A type of radiosonde launched by a rocket and making its measurements during a parachute descent; capable of obtaining soundings to a much greater height than possible by balloon or aircraft.

roll cloud (sometimes improperly called rotor cloud)—A dense and horizontal roll-shaped accessory cloud located on the lower leading edge of a cumulonimbus or less often, a rapidly developing cumulus; indicative of turbulence.

rotor cloud (sometimes improperly called roll cloud)—A turbulent cloud formation found in the lee of some large mountain barriers, the air in the cloud rotates around an axis parallel to the range; indicative of possible violent turbulence.

runway temperature—The temperature of the air just above a runway, ideally at engine and/or wing height, used in the determination of density altitude; useful at airports when critical values of density altitude prevail.

runway visibility—The meteorological visibility along an identified runway determined from a specified point on the runway; may be determined by a transmissometer or by an observer.

runway visual range—An instrumentally derived horizontal distance a pilot should see down the runway from the approach end; based on either the sighting of high intensity runway lights or on the visual contrast of other objects, whichever yields the greatest visual range.

S

St. Elmo's Fire (also called corposant)—A luminous brush discharge of electricity from protruding objects, such as masts and yardarms of ships, aircraft, lightning rods, steeples, etc., occurring in stormy weather.

Santa Ana—A hot, dry, foehn wind, generally from the northeast or east, occurring west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains especially in the pass and river valley near Santa Ana, California.

saturated adiabatic lapse rate—The rate of decrease of temperature with height as saturated air is lifted with no gain or loss of heat from outside sources; varies with temperature, being greatest at low temperatures. See adiabatic process and dry-adiabatic lapse rate.

saturation—The condition of the atmosphere when actual water vapor present is the maximum possible at existing temperature.

scud—Small detached masses of stratus fractus clouds below a layer of higher clouds, usually nimbostratus.

sea breeze—A coastal breeze blowing from sea to land, caused by the temperature difference when the land surface is warmer than the sea surface. Compare land breeze.

sea fog—A type of advection fog formed when air that has been lying over a warm surface is transported over a colder water surface.

sea level pressure—The atmospheric pressure at mean sea level, either directly measured by stations at sea level or empirically determined from the station pressure and temperature by stations not at sea level; used as a common reference for analyses of surface pressure patterns.

sea smoke—Same as steam fog.

sector visibility—Meteorological visibility within a specified sector of the horizon circle.

sensitivity time control—A radar circuit designed to correct for range attenuation so that echo intensity on the scope is proportional to reflectivity of the target regardless of range.

shear—See wind shear.

shower—Precipitation from a cumuliform cloud; characterized by the suddenness of beginning and ending, by the rapid change of intensity, and usually by rapid change in the appearance of the sky; showery precipitation may be in the form of rain, ice pellets, or snow.

slant visibility—For an airborne observer, the distance at which he can see and distinguish objects on the ground.

sleet—See ice pellets.

smog—A mixture of smoke and fog.

smoke—A restriction to visibility resulting from combustion.

snow—Precipitation composed of white or translucent ice crystals, chiefly in complex branched hexagonal form.

snow flurry—Popular term for snow shower, particularly of a very light and brief nature.

snow grains—Precipitation of very small, white opaque grains of ice, similar in structure to snow crystals. The grains are fairly flat or elongated, with diameters generally less than 0.04 inch (1 mm.).

snow pellets—Precipitation consisting of white, opaque approximately round (sometimes conical) ice particles having a snow-like structure, and about 0.08 to 0.2 inch in diameter; crisp and easily crushed, differing in this respect from snow grains; rebound from a hard surface and often break up.

snow shower—See shower.

solar radiation—The total electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. See insolation.

sounding—In meteorology, an upper-air observation; a radiosonde observation.

source region—An extensive area of the earth's surface characterized by relatively uniform surface conditions where large masses of air remain long enough to take on characteristic temperature and moisture properties imparted by that surface.

specific humidity—The ratio by weight of water vapor in a sample of air to the combined weight of water vapor and dry air. Compare mixing ratio.

squall—A sudden increase in wind speed by at least 15 knots to a peak of 20 knots or more and lasting for at least one minute. Essential difference between a gust and a squall is the duration of the peak speed.

squall line—Any nonfrontal line or narrow band of active thunderstorms (with or without squalls).

stability—A state of the atmosphere in which the vertical distribution of temperature is such that a parcel will resist displacement from its initial level. (See also instability.)

standard atmosphere—A hypothetical atmosphere based on climatological averages comprised of numerous physical constants of which the most important are:

A surface temperature of 59° F (15° C) and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury (1013.2 millibars) at sea level;
A lapse rate in the troposphere of 6.5° C per kilometer (approximately 2° C per 1,000 feet);
A tropopause of 11 kilometers (approximately 36,000 feet) with a temperature of −56.5° C; and
An isothermal lapse rate in the stratosphere to an altitude of 24 kilometers (approximately 80,000 feet).

standing cloud (standing lenticular altocumulus)—See lenticular cloud.

standing wave—A wave that remains stationary in a moving fluid. In aviation operations it is used most commonly to refer to a lee wave or mountain wave.

stationary front—Same as quasi-stationary front.

station pressure—The actual atmospheric pressure at the observing station.

steam fog—Fog formed when cold air moves over relatively warm water or wet ground.

storm detection radar—A weather radar designed to detect hydrometeors of precipitation size; used primarily to detect storms with large drops or hailstones as opposed to clouds and light precipitation of small drop size.

stratiform—Descriptive of clouds of extensive horizontal development, as contrasted to vertically developed eumuliform clouds; characteristic of stable air and, therefore, composed of small water droplets.

stratocumulus—A low cloud, predominantly stratiform in gray and/or whitish patches or layers, may or may not merge; elements are tessellated, rounded, or roll-shaped with relatively flat tops.

stratosphere—The atmospheric layer above the tropopause, average altitude of base and top, 7 and 22 miles respectively; characterized by a slight average increase of temperature from base to top and is very stable; also characterized by low moisture content and absence of clouds.

stratus—A low, gray cloud layer or sheet with a fairly uniform base; sometimes appears in ragged patches; seldom produces precipitation but may produce drizzle or snow grains. A stratiform cloud.

stratus fractus—See fractus.

streamline—In meteorology, a line whose tangent is the wind direction at any point along the line. A flowline.

sublimation—See change of state.

subrefraction—See refraction.

subsidence—A descending motion of air in the atmosphere over a rather broad area; usually associated with divergence.

summation principle—The principle states that the cover assigned to a layer is equal to the summation of the sky cover of the lowest layer plus the additional coverage at all successively higher layers up to and including the layer in question. Thus, no layer can be assigned a sky cover less than a lower layer, and no sky cover can be greater than 1.0 (10/10).

superadiabatic lapse rate—A lapse rate greater than the dry-adiabatic lapse rate. See absolute instability.

supercooled water—Liquid water at temperatures colder than freezing.

superrefraction—See refraction.

surface inversion—An inversion with its base at the surface, often caused by cooling of the air near the surface as a result of terrestrial radiation, especially at night.

surface visibility—Visibility observed from eye-level above the ground.

synoptic chart—A chart, such as the familiar weather map, which depicts the distribution of meteorological conditions over an area at a given time.

T

target—In radar, any of the many types of objects detected by radar.

temperature—In general, the degree of hotness or coldness as measured on some definite temperature scale by means of any of various types of thermometers.

temperature inversion—See inversion.

terrestrial radiation—The total infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and its atmosphere.

thermograph—A continuous-recording thermometer.

thermometer—An instrument for measuring temperature.

theodolite—An optical instrument which, in meteorology, is used principally to observe the motion of a pilot balloon.

thunderstorm—In general, a local storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud, and always accompanied by lightning and thunder.

tornado (sometimes called cyclone, twister)—A violently rotating column of air, pendant from a cumulonimbus cloud, and nearly always observable as “funnel-shaped.“ It is the most destructive of all small-scale atmospheric phenomena.

towering cumulus—A rapidly growing cumulus in which height exceeds width.

tower visibility—Prevailing visibility determined from the control tower.

trade winds—Prevailing, almost continuous winds blowing with an easterly component from the subtropical high pressure belts toward the intertropical convergence zone; northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.

transmissometer—An instrument system which shows the transmissivity of light through the atmosphere. Transmissivity may be translated either automatically or manually into visibility and/or runway visual range.

tropical air—An air mass with characteristics developed over low latitudes. Maritime tropical air (mT), the principal type, is produced over the tropical and subtropical seas; very warm and humid. Continental tropical (cT) is produced over subtropical arid regions and is hot and very dry. Compare polar air.

tropical cyclone—A general term for a cyclone that originates over tropical oceans. By international agreement, tropical cyclones have been classified according to their intensity, as follows:

tropical depression—winds up to 34 knots (64 km/h);
tropical storm—winds of 35 to 64 knots (65 to 119 km/h);
hurricane or typhoon—winds of 65 knots or higher (120 km/h).

tropical depression—See tropical cyclone.

tropical storm—See tropical cyclone.

tropopause—The transition zone between the troposphere and stratosphere, usually characterized by an abrupt change of lapse rate.

troposphere—That portion of the atmosphere from the earth's surface to the tropopause; that is, the lowest 10 to 20 kilometers of the atmosphere. The troposphere is characterized by decreasing temperature with height, and by appreciable water vapor.

trough (also called trough line)—In meteorology, an elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure; usually associated with and most clearly identified as an area of maximum cyclonic curvature of the wind flow (isobars, contours, or streamlines); compare with ridge.

true altitude—See altitude.

true wind direction—The direction, with respect to true north, from which the wind is blowing.

turbulence—In meteorology, any irregular or disturbed flow in the atmosphere.

twilight—The intervals of incomplete darkness following sunset and preceding sunrise. The time at which evening twilight ends or morning twilight begins is determined by arbitrary convention, and several kinds of twilight have been defined and used; most commonly civil, nautical, and astronomical twilight.

Civil Twilight—The period of time before sunrise and after sunset when the sun is not more than 6° below the horizon.
Nautical Twilight—The period of time before sunrise and after sunset when the sun is not more than 12° below the horizon.
Astronomical Twilight—The period of time before sunrise and after sunset when the sun is not more than 18° below the horizon.

twister—In the United States, a colloquial term for tornado.

typhoon—A tropical cyclone in the Eastern Hemisphere with winds in excess of 65 knots (120 km/h).

U

undercast—A cloud layer of ten-tenths (1.0) coverage (to the nearest tenth) as viewed from an observation point above the layer.

unlimited ceiling—A clear sky or a sky cover that does not meet the criteria for a ceiling.

unstable—Set instability.

updraft—A localized upward current of air.

upper front—A front aloft not extending to the earth's surface.

upslope fog—Fog formed when air flows upward over rising terrain and is, consequently, adiabatically cooled to or below its initial dew point.

V

vapor pressure—In meteorology, the pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere. Vapor pressure is that part of the total atmospheric pressure due to water vapor and is independent of the other atmospheric gases or vapors.

vapor trail—Same as condensation trail.

veering—Shifting of the wind in a clockwise direction with respect to either space or time; opposite of backing. Commonly used by meteorologists to refer to an anticyclonic shift (clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere).

vertical visibility—The distance one can see upward into a surface based obscuration; or the maximum height from which a pilot in flight can recognize the ground through a surface based obscuration.

virga—Water or ice particles falling from a cloud, usually in wisps or streaks, and evaporating before reaching the ground.

visibility—The greatest distance one can see and identify prominent objects.

visual range—See runway visual range.

vortex—In meteorology, any rotary flow in the atmosphere.

vorticity—Turning of the atmosphere. Vorticity may be imbedded in the total flow and not readily identified by a flow pattern.

absolute vorticity—the rotation of the Earth imparts vorticity to the atmosphere; absolute vorticity is the combined vorticity due to this rotation and vorticity due to circulation relative to the Earth (relative vorticity).
negative vorticity—vorticity caused by anticyclonic turning; it is associated with downward motion of the air.
positive vorticity—vorticity caused by cyclonic turning; it is associated with upward motion of the air.
relative vorticity—vorticity of the air relative to the Earth, disregarding the component of vorticity resulting from Earth's rotation.

W

wake turbulence—Turbulence found to the rear of a solid body in motion relative to a fluid. In aviation terminology, the turbulence caused by a moving aircraft.

wall cloud—The well-defined bank of vertically developed clouds having a wall-like appearance which form the outer boundary of the eye of a well-developed tropical cyclone.

warm front—Any non-occluded front which moves in such a way that warmer air replaces colder air.

warm sector—The area covered by warm air at the surface and bounded by the warm front and cold front of a wave cyclone.

water equivalent—The depth of water that would result from the melting of snow or ice.

waterspout—See tornado.

water vapor—Water in the invisible gaseous form.

wave cyclone—A cyclone which forms and moves along a front. The circulation about the cyclone center tends to produce a wavelike deformation of the front.

weather—The state of the atmosphere, mainly with respect to its effects on life and human activities; refers to instantaneous conditions or short term changes as opposed to climate.

weather radar—Radar specifically designed for observing weather. See cloud detection radar and storm detection radar.

weather vane—A wind vane.

wedge—Same as ridge.

wet bulls—Contraction of either wet-bulb temperature or wet-bulb thermometer.

wet-bulb temperature—The lowest temperature that can be obtained on a wet-bulb thermometer in any given sample of air, by evaporation of water (or ice) from the muslin wick; used in computing dew point and relative humidity.

wet-bulb thermometer—A thermometer with a muslin-covered bulb used to measure wet-bulb temperature.

whirlwind—A small, rotating column of air; may be visible as a dust devil.

willy-willy—A tropical cyclone of hurricane strength near Australia.

wind—Air in motion relative to the surface of the earth; generally used to denote horizontal movement.

wind direction—The direction from which wind is blowing.

wind speed—Rate of wind movement in distance per unit time.

wind vane—An instrument to indicate wind direction.

wind velocity—A vector term to include both wind direction and wind speed.

wind shear—The rate of change of wind velocity (direction and/or speed) per unit distance; conventionally expressed as vertical or horizontal wind shear.

X-Y-Z

zonal wind—A west wind; the westerly component of a wind. Conventionally used to describe large-scale flow that is neither cyclonic nor anticyclonic.

Table of Contents
Previous Section: In Closing

A PDF version of this book is available here. You may be able to buy a printed copy of the book from amazon.com.